Woman that carries an altered gene for X-linked recessive trait have 50 percent chance of having sons affected and a 50 percent chance that daughters will carry one copy of the altered gene.
In general, in X-linked recessive inheritance, daughter carry forward single mutated gene on the X chromosome . The other X chromosome she inherits from the other parent will nullify effect of the mutation, and she will not have the genetic condition.
Hence, X-linked recessive inheritance refers to genetic conditions that associated with mutations in genes on the X chromosome. So ,if the male carrying such a mutation he will be affected because of only one X chromosome.
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Reactive oxygen intermediates and reactive nitrogen intermediates produced by phagocytic cells are effective in killing invading microorganisms. True O False
The statement 'reactive oxygen intermediates and reactive nitrogen intermediates produced by phagocytic cells are effective in killing invading microorganisms' is true.
In the field of biology, phagocytic cells can be described as the type of cells that eat or kill the microorganism by releasing such compounds that are toxic to the microorganism.
Oxygen intermediates and nitrogen intermediates are formed by the phagocytic cells and these intermediates are reactive enough to bind to the compounds in the microorganism and hinder their activity. When the activities of the microorganism are hindered such that they cannot carry out the basic life process, the microorganism is killed. Hence, the statement above is true.
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how does homologous structures and analogous structures support the idea of common ancestry and descent with modification? in at least 5-7 sentences
Homologous structures provide evidence for common ancestry, while analogous structures express that similar selective pressures can produce similar adaptations.
What are Homologous structures?Homologous structures may be defined as those structures that have the same structural design and origin but different functions. For example, forelimbs of vertebrates, thorns, tendrils of bougainvillea and Cucurbita, etc.
Due to different needs, some structures developed differently. This is called divergent evolution. On contrary, analogous structures are those structures that are anatomically different but functionally similar.
Some examples may include the eyes of octopuses and mammals, the flippers of dolphins and penguins, etc. Due to the same or identical functions, different structures evolve similarly. This is called convergent evolution.
Therefore, similarities and differences among biological molecules can be used to determine species' relatedness on the basis of homologous and analogous structures.
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Which is the best brief description of the vascular system of the very first terrestrial plants?
A vascular system was not yet developed in the earliest plants.The cuticle is the term for the dry, waxy coating that covers plant leaves and stems. .
Which are the first terrestrial vascular plants?A first terrestrial plants with vascular tissues are pteridophytes (xylem and phloem).
What resembled the earliest vascular plants?Cooksonia, a 6.5-centimeter-tall plants having dichotomously branching (forking into two) leafless stems and sporangia at their tips, is the oldest vascular plant known to science.No rhizomes or underground components have yet to be discovered; only fragments have been collected.
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in animals, what is the difference between reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning?
Reproductive cloning involves making the identical copies of an entire organism whereas therapeutic cloning involves making copies of certain damaged tissues or organs by creating embryonic stem cells.
Cloning is the process of making the exact copies of an organism, cell, tissue or organ. The cloned copy has the same genetic sequence as that of the object it was cloned from. The first cloned organism was Dolly, the sheep.
Embryonic stem cell is the cell of the inner cell mass of trophoblast stage of embryo. It is a totipotent cell that has the capability to give rise to all types of cells and form a complete organism.
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which sequencing strategy sequences a whole genome by breaking the genome into short sequences, sequencing them, and assembling the sequenced contigs on the basis of overlap?
The shotgun strategy sequences a whole genome by breaking it in short sequences.
The DNA sequence of an organism's genome can be ascertained in a lab setting using a process called shotgun sequencing. The process entails randomly dividing the genome into tiny DNA fragments that are then individually sequenced.
Shotgun sequencing takes its name from the idea that a lengthy sequence is essentially divided into a great number of smaller ones, much like a shotgun shell does when it is fired. Essentially, you enter your full sequence (the part about the fire in the hole).
The detection of numerous DNA polymorphisms, better speed and cost, and a more thorough and minimally artifactual coverage of the genome are the three main benefits. Shotgun sequencing can find a sizable portion of all frequent human DNA variations.
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which color is the tube and stopper that is used to collect specimens for serum analysis?
Monoject royal and blue-top tubes colors come in two varieties: one simple and one with the anticoagulant EDTA. To obtain whole blood or serum for trace element analysis, these methods employed.
Each evacuated blood collection tube has a color-coded plastic or rubber cap on top of it. The color serves as a cue as to what kind of additives are in the tube. Chemicals like anticoagulants that keep the blood in tact for laboratory processing are examples of additives. Light blue stopper tube is the color of the tube that must always be filled to the proper ratio.
Red-top tubes are infrequently used, but mottled red/gray, gold, or cherry red-top tubes are typically used to collect serum. Blood that has been combined with an anticoagulant in the collecting tube and has not clotted is used to make plasma. After gathering the whole blood, leave it undisturbed at room temperature to allow the blood to coagulate. Normally, this takes 15 to 30 minutes. By centrifuging at 1,000–2,000 x g for 10 minutes in a refrigerator, the clot can be removed. The substance that collects at the top is called serum.
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Plastic beads used in jewelry making are made of long molecules usually consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Compare the bonding in these molecules to the bonding in gems.
Due of the close similarities in the electronegativities of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen, most bonds in plastics are covalent.
In chemistry, factors that may hold atoms together must manifest in order for chemical compounds to develop. These forces are known as bonds, and depending on the chemicals that form the bonds, they may be covalent, metallic, or ionic. For instance, substances created by two nonmetals tend to be covalent, but those formed by a nonmetal and a metal tend to be ionic.The majority of a substance's features are also determined by the sort of bond it contains, for example, ionic bonds result in solid, molecularly distinct crystal formations, whereas covalent bonds result in amorphous solids.However, because plastic is easily deformed and cannot endure high temperatures, pressures, or mechanical shears, it will have covalent bonds, such as those found in plastic beads.To know more about bonds check the below link:
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which fish do not require evisceration? salmon whitefish sable small fish less than five inches in length
Small fish less than five inches in length does not require evisceration.
Evisceration is the total elimination of all internal organs of the body, including the gonads, without slashing or perforating them.
To reduce the amount of bacterial parasites and spoilage bacteria found in fish intestines and gills, complete and thorough evisceration is required.
Because Clostridium botulinum is commonly found in marine and freshwater environments, fish gills and intestines can contain large numbers of spores. These spores can germinate and develop in the right conditions, generating a potent neurotoxin. Proper evisceration is essential for reducing the threat of toxin production because it removes the Clostridium botulinum spores.
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Monkeys were ________ to develop a fear of fear-relevant stimuli, like toy snakes or a toy crocodile, as they were to fear-irrelevant stimuli, like flowers or a toy rabbit.
Monkeys were more likely to develop a fear of fear-relevant stimuli, like toy snakes or a toy crocodile, as they were to fear-irrelevant stimuli, like flowers or a toy rabbit.
What do you mean by stimuli?A stimulus is anything that can trigger a physical or behavioral change. The plural of stimulus is stimuli. Stimuli can be external or internal. An example of external stimuli is your body responding to a medicine.
Moreover, stimulus is an event or any change in the external environment that evokes a specific functional reaction in an organ or tissue. stimulus can be internal or external. Sense organs, such as the ear, and sensory receptors.
In physiology, a stimulus is a detectable change in the physical or chemical structure of an organism's internal or external environment. The ability of an organism or organ to detect external stimuli, so that an appropriate reaction can be made, is called sensitivity.
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cell division that reduces chromosome number from diploid to haploid, reduction division
A Mitosis
B Meiosis
C Amitosis
D Fision
Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces chromosome number from diploid to haploid.
What do you mean by meiosis?
Meiosis, also called reduction division, division of a germ cell involving two fissions of the nucleus and giving rise to four gametes, or sex cells, each possessing half the number of chromosomes of the original cell.
The process of meiosis is characteristic of organisms that reproduce sexually. Such species have in the nucleus of each cell a diploid (double) set of chromosomes, consisting of two haploid sets (one inherited from each parent). These haploid sets are homologous—i.e., they contain the same kinds of genes, but not necessarily in the same form.
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Meiosis is the division of a cell that reduces the number of chromosomes from a diploid (2n) state to a haploid (n) state.
What is diploid?
Diploid is a term used in genetics to refer to a cell or organism that has two sets of chromosomes. In humans, the diploid number of chromosomes is 46, which is two sets of 23. This means that any human cell contains two copies of each chromosome, one from each parent. Diploid cells are found in multicellular organisms, and are the most common form of cells in the human body. Diploidy is important for genetic diversity, as it allows for the exchange of genetic material between the two sets of chromosomes. This helps create genetic variation, which is necessary for evolution to occur.
This occurs in sex cells during the process of gamete formation, and is essential for sexual reproduction. During meiosis, two consecutive nuclear divisions (meiosis I and meiosis II) reduce the number of chromosomes by half. This process also involves cell division, which results in four haploid daughter cells. Each daughter cell contains one set of chromosomes, which is a combination of the maternal and paternal chromosomes of the original cell.
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What are the similarities between DNA replication and RNA transcription?
The fact that a polymerase enzyme catalyzes both processes are some of the similarities between DNA replication and RNA transcription.
The utilization of DNA and RNA, the fact that both transcription and DNA replication take place in the nucleus. The creation of a fresh copy of DNA in a cell occurs during both DNA replication and transcription. DNA replication creates a second copy of the DNA, whereas DNA transcription converts the DNA into RNA. The creation of fresh nucleic acids, such as DNA or RNA, involves both steps.
The division of a double-stranded DNA molecule into two identical daughter strands is known as "DNA replication." The process of transcription involves turning DNA molecules into RNA. In order to create a complementary RNA molecule, RNA polymerase employs one of the DNA strands as a template.
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What is true of homologous chromosomes? Check all that apply.
One homologue is from the individual's father, the other is from the mother.
Homologous chromosomes are characteristic of diploid organisms.
Information for the same trait is carried in the same location on homologues.
Statements 2, 3, and 4 are true and apply to homologous chromosomes.
The homologous chromosome is a set of chromosome pairs containing one chromosome from the father and one chromosome from the mother. The genes are located on the chromosome and are found in pairs. These genes contain genetic information and are found in the same location.
The allele is nothing but a variant form of a gene found in pairs. They can be the same or different. Alleles for each trait are different and located in different positions on the chromosome. The characteristic of diploid organisms is the presence of two sets of homologous chromosomes to carry genetic information from the father and mother.
Therefore, statements 2, 3, and 4 are all correct options.
The complete question is -
What is true of homologous chromosomes? Check all that apply.
1. Identical alleles are carried in the same location on homologues
2. One homologue is from the individual's father, the other is from the mother.
3. Homologous chromosomes are characteristic of diploid organisms.
4. Information for the same trait is carried in the same location on homologues.
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many neurons of joints help to inform the brain about the activity of the joint, including pain or position of the joint. these types of neurons are classified as _____________________ neurons.
Many neurons of joints help to inform the brain about the activity of the joint, including pain or position of the joint. these types of neurons are classified as afferent neurons.
The neurons which informs the brain about the joints action are afferent somatic neurons, which are called as proprioceptors. Neurons are the information carrying, messenger unit which helps in transmitting information from skin/ organs system to the brain and vice versa. They are found in million of numbers inside the body. Afferent neurons are those which carry information from sensory receptors on the skin and organs to the central nervous system (brain) while efferent neurons carry motor information away from the central nervous system to the organs and other receptors on the body.
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why is it necessary to use o-nitrophenyl-b-d-galactoside (onpg) rather than lactose to assay the activity of b-galactosidase?
The correct response is d. ONPG is cleaved to form galactose and o-nitrophenol, whose concentration can be measured by spectrophotometry.
A technique called spectrophotometry uses light intensity measurements as a beam of light travels through a sample solution to determine how much a chemical compound absorbs light. Every chemical either absorbs or transmits light across a specific spectrum of wavelengths, according to the fundamental principle. In physical and analytical chemistry, spectroscopy is used to identify, ascertain, or quantify the molecular and/or structural makeup of a material. Atoms and molecules of various types will each reflect, absorb, or emit electromagnetic radiation in ways that are unique to them. A common and affordable method for determining the number of compounds in a solution or the degree of light absorption is spectrophotometry. Each substance in the solution either absorbs or transmits light of a particular wavelength when it is passed through the sample using a light beam. A technique called spectrophotometry uses light intensity measurements as a beam of light travels through a sample solution to determine how much a chemical compound absorbs light. The fundamental idea is that every substance either absorbs or transmits light across a specific wavelength range.
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Why is it necessary to use o-nitrophenyl-B-D-galactoside (ONPG) rather than lactose to assay the activity of B-galactosidase?
a. ONPG ensures that other biological reactions do not occur with what would otherwise be a newly synthesized glucose molecule
b. ONPG the only way to detect the activity of B-galactosidase
c. ONPG reacts more readily with B-galactosidase than lactose
d. ONPG is cleaved to form galactose and o-nitrophenol, whose concentration can be measured by spectrophotometry
e. ONPG is a colored compound whose concentration can be measured by spectrophotometry
unlike bacterial infections, populations of pathogenic viruses do not evolve resistance to antiviral drugs. t or f
The statement is False
A virus may become unresponsive to antiviral drugs. It is well known that viruses keep changing and initially effective antiviral drugs become ineffective.
Viruses that develop resistance to antiviral drugs are very difficult to treat. Viruses, like all other microorganisms, develop drug resistance. With long-term exposure to antiviral drugs, the virus develops resistance, rendering the drugs ineffective.
Viral replication resulting from immunosuppression also leads to increased viral load, manifesting as increased viremia despite treatment.
The emergence of resistance to antiviral drugs may be inevitable, and resistant viruses end up being transmitted.
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what is the advantage in having this number of chambers compared to organisms with fewer number of chambers?
The benefit of having this many chambers over organisms with fewer chambers is that it eliminates the need to mix the blood types before sending deoxygenated blood to the lungs and oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.
In a heart with four chambers, a septum entirely divides the left from the right. This stops the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. This increases energy and improves oxygen supply. Numerous daily actions demand this energy.
Compared to the ventricles, the atria have substantially thinner walls. In comparison to the atria, the ventricles pump blood out at a higher pressure.
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What do you think the term "tectonically stable" means? Why do you think this rock formation is important to understanding the history of Earth? Do you think studying ancient rock formations such as the Kaapvaal craton can teach scientists not only about Earth's past but also it's future? Why or why not?
The term tectonically stable can be said to be a period where there is no disruption, compression or deformation from tectonic forces. This is essential because it keeps the earth possibly stable.
The rock formation is important to the understanding of the history of the earth because rocks tell us a great deal about the Earth's history. Rocks like igneous and sedimentary contain clues about what the Earth was like in the past and can be used to age-date certain periods in the past and even record past depositional environments which is helpful in story telling about past climate, life, and major events at Earth's surface.
The Kaapvaal craton in Africa is one of fifth ancient cratons left from the Precambrian era. Since then the rock has remained tectonically stable since its formation 3.6 billion to 2 billion years ago, so it will be optimally helpful in the teaching of scientist not only about the past but also the future due to it stable state.
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given that about 25% of the mammalian genome is associated with genes, including introns and regulatory sequence, what would be the approximate average length of dna per gene if the genome contained 20,000 genes?
About 25% of the mammalian genome is associated with genes, including introns and regulatory sequence, and the approximate average length of DNA per gene if the genome contained 20,000 genes would be 40,000 base pairs.
Mammalian genome is a peer-reviewed journal that publishes analysis and review articles within the fields of biology and genetics in mouse, human and connected organisms. As of Gregorian calendar month 2009 its editors-in-chief are Joseph H. Nadeau and Sir Leslie Stephen D. M. Brown.
An intron is a region that resides inside a cistron however doesn't stay within the final mature mRNA molecule following transcription of that cistron and doesn't code for amino acids that frame the macromolecule encoded by that cistron. Most protein-coding genes within the human ordination carries with it exons and introns.
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if a student wanted to view the histology of nephron loops within renal pyramids, where in the kidney should they look?
If a student wanted to view the histology of nephron loops within renal pyramids they should look Renal pelvis. This renal pelvis of the kidney is the funnel like dilated part of the ureter in the kidney.
What is histology?
Histology is defined as the scientific study of the microscopic structure microanatomy of cells and tissues. histology provided a key information about biological tissues, animal growth, physiology, and tissue diseases .
Therefore renal pelvis is enlarged upper end of the ureter and the tube through which urine flows from the kidney to the urinary bladder.
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neurons and liver cells in humans can produce different proteins from the same dna. this is because:
All of the cells within a complex multicellular organism such as a human being contain the same DNA;
however, the body of such an organism is clearly composed of many different types of cells. Although all cells contain the same DNA sequence, muscle cells are different from nerve cells and other types of cells because of the different genes that are turned on in these cells and the different RNAs and proteins produced.
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true or false? a large cerebral hemorrhage in the right hemisphere will lead to sensory and motor deficits on the right side of the body.
False, a large cerebral hemorrhage in the right hemisphere will not lead to sensory and motor deficits on the right side of the body.
A brain blood artery that breaks due to illness or injury is the main cause of cerebral hemorrhage. Blood may now enter the brain because of this. Cells in the brain may be harmed by the abrupt increase in pressure. And a quick rise in blood volume might result in sensory unconsciousness or even death. When the cerebrospinal fluid gaps around the brain are filled with blood, this is known as a cerebral hemorrhage. Both ailments are quite severe. the sensory body's components and the tasks they govern in addition to depleting the brain of oxygen and destroying brain cells.
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if you made a change in the dna of a promoter sequence that inactivates the promoter, what would happen at the rna level?
No RNA would be produced since the Rna would be unable to detect and bind the DNA.
Can a promoter's DNA sequence be altered?If the promoter of the DNA is altered, for as by being rendered inactive, RNA polymerase and the accompanying transcription factors won't be able to detect the promoter and bind the DNA to the promoter's operator, and transcription won't begin.
What would occur if the sigma factor's binding to RNA polymerase was broken?Multiple Options No transcription would start if RNA polymerase left the promoter.Stem-loop structure wouldn't arise in this case.There would be no way to identify the terminator sequence.The template DNA wouldn't allow RNA polymerase to connect to it.A new RNA molecule would not be created using the correct nucleotides.
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what term is used to describe a period characterized by very high rates of speciation?
Periods characterized by very high levels of speciation are called adaptive radiation.
Adaptive radiation is a period when there is a rapid increase in the number of species characterized by rapid ecological and morphological diversity with a common ancestor. Adaptive radiation is part of the theory of descent with modification, although it expresses evolution in closely related forms and not in novel designs.
Selection of different habitats can cause changes in anatomy and physiology, even groups of organisms that live in the same habitat but different food choices can also cause anatomical and physiological changes in the bodies of these living things.
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n cell x, which has the a fate, gene 1 is on. in cell y, which has the b fate, gene 1 is off. what will happen if there is a loss-of function mutation in gene 3?
In cell X, which has the A fate, gene 1 is on. In cell Y, which has the B fate, gene 1 is off. If there is a loss of-function mutation in both Gene 3 and Gene 5 then Cell X will have the B fate and cell Y will have the B fate.
Genes that have sequence mutations can produce a wide range of alleles, or variants, in the population. These alleles may produce slightly varied phenotypic traits as a result of encoding slightly various copies of the same gene. A particular allele of a common gene is usually referred to as "carrying a gene" in scientific literature. Natural selection/survival of the fittest and genetic drift of alleles are two methods that cause genes to evolve. As new events are uncovered, the understanding of genes is always being refined. A gene's coding regions, for instance, might be divided up into a number of exons, whereas the gene's regulatory elements might be located outside of them. Instead of DNA, some viruses store their genomes in RNA.
The complete question is:
Below is a signaling pathway that determines the fate of cells X and Y [note that a pointed arrow ( → ) indicate activation and the blunt arrow ( ---| ) indicates inhibition].
1 → 2 ---| 3 ---| 4 → 5 ---| 6
In cell X, which has the A fate, gene 1 is on. In cell Y, which has the B fate, gene 1 is off. What will happen if there is a loss of-function mutation in both Gene 3 and Gene 5?
Question options:
a) Cell X will have the A fate and cell Y will have the B fate.
b) Cell X will have the A fate and cell Y will have the A fate.
c) Cell X will have the B fate and cell Y will have the B fate.
d) Cell X will have the B fate and cell Y will have the A fate.
e) There is not enough information to answer this question.
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1. explain how mitosis leads to two daughter cells, each of which is diploid and genetically identical to the original cell
During mitosis, daughter cells are produced that are genetically identical to their parent cells.
Before copying, or "replicating," its chromosomes, the cell evenly splits the copies to provide each daughter cell a full set. The growth phase (G1), during which the cell expands, precedes the DNA replication phase (S phase), which takes place during the cell cycle's interphase. One chromosome produces two chromatids during DNA replication, but only one centromere connects the two of them. Prior to cell division, every chromosome is duplicated, enabling each daughter cell to have the same genetic content. Additionally, this means that any errors produced during cell division that are not fixed will be passed on to the daughter cells from parent cells.
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which of the following is characteristic of early modern homo sapiens? group of answer choices large browridges. an average cranial capacity of 1,500 cc. a long and low braincase. a robust build of the postcranial skeleton. anthro
Early homo sapiens had a larger cranial capacity than previous hominins thus the correct answer is (B). an average cranial capacity of 1,500 cc.
The term "sapiens" in the name "Homo sapiens" refers to a "smart man," as they evolved with a larger brain than their ancestors, which allowed them to create complex languages to improve communication.
Additionally, due to their continual travel, Homo sapiens' skin underwent diverse weather adaptations, therefore they used animal skin to build shelters for themselves to protect themselves from the cold.
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What is the process of burning called?
The process of burning is called Combustion. It is a chemical reaction between two or more chemicals, generally including oxygen, that produces heat and light in the form of a flame.
The rate or speed at which the reactants combine is rapid, due in part to the nature of the chemical reaction and in part to the fact that more energy is created than can escape into the surrounding medium, causing the temperature of the reactants to be elevated to further accelerate the reaction.
In general, combustion is one of the most significant chemical processes and may be thought of as the final stage in the oxidation of some compounds.
Though oxidation was formerly thought to be just the interaction of oxygen with any molecule or element, the term has come to describe any reaction in which atoms lose electrons and become oxidized.
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an acoustic neuroma is a tumor that arises from neurolemmocytes surrounding the vestibular portion of the vestibulocochlear nerve (cn viii). the tumor is benign, but generally grows within the confined space of the petrous part of the temporal bone, thus compressing the nerve and creating problems with balance and hearing loss. what nerve other than cn viii would you expect to be affected by this tumor (due to its close proximity)?
Nearby nerves may be affected by an acoustic neuroma:
Trigeminal nerve.Facial nerve.Glossopharyngeal and Vagus nerves.Other cranial nerves XI and XII, III, IV, and VI are affected when the tumor is very large.Acoustic neuroma, known as vestibular schwannoma is a noncancerous tumor that resides in the brain. These tumors usually grow and develop slowly on the main ear nerve that leads from the inner ear to the brain. Tumors can grow large and interfere with hearing and balance.
Acoustic neuroma tumor growths can also press on nerves, blood vessels, or other structures in the face or the brain.
The acoustic neuroma occurs when a gene on chromosome 22 does not function normally. The gene on chromosome 22 functions to control the growth of Schwann cells, which are cells that cover nerve cells in the body, including nerves that regulate balance. These conditions cause Schwann cells to grow and develop uncontrollably.
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The voltage-gated potassium channels close before the membrane potential is brought back to its resting level.
a. true
b. false
There are more negatively charged particles inside the membrane than outside, according to the resting membrane potential's negative value.
Explain about the voltage-gated potassium?Transmembrane channels called voltage-gated potassium channels (VGKC) are in charge of repolarizing the depolarized cell to its resting state following each nerve impulse. As a result, they play a crucial role in controlling neuronal excitability in the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.
Based on both their ion-conducting capabilities and their interactions with other proteins in signaling complexes at the plasma membrane, voltage-gated potassium channels control the passage through cell cycle checkpoints. Throughout the cell cycle, the membrane potential fluctuates.
Potassium rushes out of the cell along its electrochemical gradient when a set of voltage-gated potassium channels open. The membrane potential is swiftly reduced by these occurrences, returning it to its regular resting condition.
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Which glands secrete their product by way of a duct directly onto an epithelial surface?
Exocrine glands secrete their product by way of a duct directly onto an epithelial surface.
A gland is a group of cells that function as a functional unit to produce and release a substance into the bloodstream or a duct. Exocrine and endocrine glands are the two main categories of glands. The exocrine gland is present in numerous organs and performs a number of jobs for the body. Because of this, healthcare professionals must be familiar with the physiology of exocrine glands.
Exocrine glands provide the body with a way to discharge secretions including proteins, mucus, and other products to epithelial surfaces throughout the body, playing a critical part in the physiology of many organ systems from the skin to the pancreas.
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