Somatic hypermutation occurs only in the variable regions of rearranged heavy and light chains.
Somatic hypermutation of immunoglobulin (Ig) genes is important in antibody-mediated immunity. SHM in B cells serves as the molecular foundation for antibody affinity maturation. In this way, SHM plays an important role in optimizing antibody-dependent immune responses.
As seen during class switching, somatic hypermutation is a cellular mechanism by which the immune system adapts to new foreign elements. Affinity maturation is the process by which antibodies gain increased affinity, avidity, and anti-pathogen activity. It is caused by somatic hypermutation (SHM) of immunoglobulin genes in B cells combined with antigen binding selection.
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A patient who has experienced previous jaw and face trauma now reports difficulty tasting with the tip of her tongue: Which cranial nerve was likely damaged in that injury? A. Hypoglossal (XII) B. Glossopharyngeal (IX) C. Vagus (X)D. Trigeminal (V)E Facial (VII)
The hypoglossal cranial nerve was possibly harmed in that injury.
The Hypoglossal Nerve is the twelfth Cranial Nerve (Cranial Nerve XII). It is mostly an efferent nerve for the tongue muscle structure. The nerve starts from the medulla and voyages caudally and dorsally to the tongue. Taste misfortune is accepted to be brought about by demyelination of chorda tympani, a part of the facial nerve. Nonetheless, creature studies have shown that there exists a frill pathway of tongue innervation through the trigeminal nerve, which is likewise liable for loss of taste. It innervates every one of the outward and inborn muscles of the tongue, with the exception of the palatoglossus which is innervated by the vagus nerve. It is a nerve with a sole engine capability.
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WILL GIVE BRAINLYIEST JUST PLEASE HELP Which of the following is NOT an example of a trait?
A)
eye color
B)
ear shape
C)
species
D)
body height
Answer: I believe it would be ear shape.
large air tubes leading from the trachea to the lungs which convey air to andfrom the lungs; consist of primary, secondary or tertiary and right and leftbronchioles
primary, secondary, or tertiary, as well as right and left, large air tubes that connect the trachea towards the lungs and carry air there and back Bronch ioles are bronchi
What use do bronchi serve?Air travels from and to your lungs through your bronchi. The bronchi also aid in hydrating the air that breathe and filtering out foreign objects. Mucus-producing cells line the interior of your airways.
What other names do the bronchi go by?When the bronchi are too thin for cartilage to hold them, they are referred to as bronchioles. In the bronchi, there is no gas exchange. Bronchus. The bronchi serve as conduits for air entering the lungs. Part of the lower respiratory tract are the bronchi.
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a colorless, odorless, gaseous element that is found in air and water. it is necessary for humans, animals and plants to live.
Answer:
oxygen
Explanation:
Oxygen is found in air comprising about 21%
It is also found in water, with the chemical formula [tex]H_{2} O[/tex]
Oxygen is necessary to life
[100 PTS] What is a cloning vector? How are cloning vectors used? Give three examples of cloning vectors, indicating which ones are better for small fragments of DNA and which are better for large fragments.
Answer:
A cloning vector is a small piece of DNA that can be stably maintained in an organism, and into which a foreign DNA fragment can be inserted for cloning purposes. Cloning vectors are utilized to insert foreign DNA into another cell and create multiple copies of the same. Examples of cloning vectors are plasmids, cosmids, bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs), and yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs).plasmids- small, BACs- large, YACs- large, cosmids- large
Explanation:
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Drag each label into the appropriate bin depending on whether it applies to primary, secondary, tertiary, or quaternary structure.Proteins have a complex structure that can be described at the four levels of primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure (click on the figure on the left). Because proteins are assembled using the instructions coded in DNA, mutations in DNA often affect protein structure. A point mutation changes a single nucleotide in DNA, either by substituting one nucleotide for another or through the insertion or deletion of a single nucleotide (click on the figure on the right). Point mutations can have a range of effects on protein structure--some have no effect at all, whereas others disrupt protein structure completely.
Each label has been placed into the appropriate bin depending on whether it applies to primary, secondary, tertiary, or quaternary structure in the image below.
The primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acid.
In secondary structure -NH and -CO group of peptide bonds interact with each other by H-bond. Example of Secondary structure is alpha-helix and beta-sheet
Tertiary structure - It is stabilize by various non-covalent interactions between the R-group of amino acids, such as H-bond, salt bridge, hydrophobic interaction within a polypeptide chain.
Quaternary structure is stabilize by non-covalent interactions between the R-group of amino acids, such as H-bond, salt bridge, hydrophobic interaction between different polypeptides.
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What are the four Importance of meiosis?
Meiosis is in charge of the generation of gametes, which are responsible for sexual reproduction. - It activates genetic information for gamete development.
It cuts the number of chromosomes in gametes cells in half and aids in maintaining a steady number of chromosomes.
Due to the fact that cell division happens twice during meiosis, a single beginning cell can create four gametes (eggs or sperm).
Cells go through four stages throughout each cycle of division: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Meiosis is critical because it guarantees that all creatures formed through sexual reproduction have the right amount of chromosomes. Meiosis also causes genetic diversity through the recombination process.
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given that about 25% of the mammalian genome is associated with genes, including introns and regulatory sequence, what would be the approximate average length of dna per gene if the genome contained 20,000 genes?
If there were 20,000 genes in the mammalian genome, with introns and regulatory sequences accounting for approximately 25% of the genome, the average DNA length would be 40,000 base pairs.
One cell's DNA could be stretched out to be around 2 meters long, and if all of your cells' DNA were combined, it would be rough twice as wide as the Solar System.
The DNA of a human cell is about 6 feet long. Consider that each human has approximately 10 trillion cells (this is a lowball estimate). This implies that each person contains roughly 10 billion miles or 60 trillion feet of DNA.
Thus, if there were 20,000 genes in the mammalian genome and 25% of the genome comprised genes, introns, and regulatory sequences, then the average length of DNA for each gene would be 40,000 base pairs.
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Theory of Evolution development History of Evolutionary Theory
The theory of evolution is primarily based totally at the concept that every one species are associated and progressively extrade over time.
In a populace which influences the bodily characteristics (phenotype) of an organismCharles Darwin is typically noted because the individual who “discovered” evolution. But, the historic report suggests that kind of seventy exceptional people posted paintings on the subject of evolution among 1748 and 1859, the yr that Darwin posted On the Origin of Species.
1858 Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace posted a brand new evolutionary concept, defined in element in Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859). Darwin's concept, at first referred to as descent with amendment is understood contemporarily as Darwinism or Darwinian concept.
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__________ is a highly conserved nucleotide sequence that has been found in developmental regulatory genes in many diverse organisms.
A: An Alu element
B: An L1 sequence
C: A homeobox
D: A homeodomain
E: A retrotransposon
Answer: A homeobox
Explanation:
the flow of highly energetic electrons through the electron transport chain changes the of the pump proteins, which causes them to transport protons across the membrane.
The flow of highly energetic electrons through the electron transport chain changes the of the pump proteins, which causes them to transport protons across the membrane is true.
The electrons in the electron transport chain (ETC) pass through a chain of proteins that raises its reduction potential and results in an energy release. A proton gradient is produced by pumping hydrogen ions (H+) from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space with the majority of this energy being lost as heat. This gradient generates an electrical difference with a positive charge outside and a negative charge inside, increasing the acidity in the intermembrane gap. Here, the citric acid cycle oxidizes the NADH provided by glycolysis, converting two electrons from NADH to FMN. After that, they move on to the Fe-S clusters, and lastly from Fe-S, they move on to coenzyme Q. The electrochemical gradient is aided by the passage of 4 hydrogen ions from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane gap.To know more about energy check the below link:
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You are a public health official investigating an outbreak of Salmonella. To detect current cases you choose to examine patients blood for the ____________ antibody class
As a representative of public health, you are looking into a Salmonella outbreak. You decide to check the blood of the patient for the IgM antibody class in order to find active cases.
What one of the following describes inflammation?Inflammation manifests as redness, swelling, heat, discomfort, and loss of tissue function at the tissue level and is brought on by local immunological, vascular, and inflammatory cell responses to infection or damage.
Which of the following is not a component of the inflammatory process?Histamines are minute chemical substances that function as inflammatory response's messenger molecules. The right response is, therefore, Option A. As antibodies are involved in humoral immunity, they are not a part of the inflammatory response.
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Which structure or component of the small intestine is important to antimicrobial defense?
A) salivary glands
B) stomach acid
C) Paneth cells
D) gall bladder
E) crevicular fluid
The structure or component of the small intestine that is important to antimicrobials are Paneth cells. So option c. is correct.
Paneth cells were first described in the late 19th century by Gustav Schwalbe and Josef Paneth as columnar epithelial granules in their cytoplasm. Decades later there is continued interest in Paneth cells as they play an integral role in maintaining intestinal homeostasis and modulating the physiology of the small intestine and its associated microbial flora.
Paneth cells are highly specialized secretory epithelial cells located in the small intestinal crypts of Lieberkuhn. The dense granules produced by Paneth cells contain an abundance of antimicrobials.
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At short focusing distances, ciliary muscles contract. what effect do these contractions have on the suspensory ligaments?
The suspensory ligaments relax at short focusing distances, and ciliary muscles contract.
Whilst the ciliary muscle contracts, its diameter becomes smaller the suspensory ligaments slacken inflicting the lens to go back to its ordinary thicker shape. This occurs while focusing on a close-by object.
The ciliary muscle tissue can contract and boom the curvature of the lens so that the lens thickens. The multiplied curvature of the lens lets the eye be cognizant of a close object. while the character then has to have a look at a remote object, the muscle tissues relax and the focal point of the lens changes to an object further away.
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The contractions have on the suspensory ligaments relax.
When the ciliary muscle contracts, its diameter decreases. The hanging strap will loosen and the lens will return to its normal thick shape. This happens when you focus on nearby objects. The ciliary muscles may contract and increase the curvature of the lens, causing it to thicken.
The greater the curvature of the lens the more it can focus on nearby objects. Then when a person needs to see a distant object the muscles relax and the focus of the lens shifts to the more distant object. When the ciliary muscle contracts, the lens becomes more spherical and focuses better.
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1. Explain ocean acidification in the past since Industrial Revolution
2. Explain acidification in todays world
3. Why be concerned with a small change in pH?
4. What are issues with lower pH?
6. What is the impact?
7. What is being done to reduce ocean acidification?
Human activity has led to an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) content over more than 200 years since the start of the industrial revolution. Surface ocean waters' pH has dropped by 0.1 pH units throughout this time.
What is ocean acidification?
A number of chemical processes take place when CO2 is absorbed by seawater, increasing the concentration of hydrogen ions. Due to this rise in acidity, carbonate ions become less prevalent and the seawater becomes more basic.
2. Explain acidification in today's world?
The entire ocean, including coastal estuaries and streams, is currently being affected by ocean acidification.
3. Why be concerned with a small change in pH?
Small pH variations can affect a wide variety of chemical reactions, including some that are necessary for life.
4. What are issues with lower pH?
Heavy metals from the environment are more prone to leach at lower pH levels. Thus, there is an increase in the amount of heavy metals in the water.
5.What is the impact?
It is anticipated that many marine species would suffer as a result of ocean acidification. This might change how marine food chains work and how humans get their food.
6. What is being done to reduce ocean acidification?
Acting on climate change and finding solutions to drastically reduce the use of fossil fuels is the most efficient method to stop ocean acidification.
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Atp is an abbreviation for adenosine triphosphate, a complex molecule that contains the nucleoside adenosine and a tail consisting of three phosphates. It is the energy currency of the cell. Atp is used by organisms as energy. The energy needed to move, grow, digest, and all other processes that require energy.
ATP synthesis takes place in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells (most ATP synthesis occurs there, but not 100%), ATP is regenerated from ADP through the process of phosphorylation (phosphorylation means "to add a P") and Energy is stored in the covalent bonds between phosphates, with the greatest amount of energy in the bond between the second and third phosphate groups.
An organic substance known as a nucleotide is composed of three different subunits: a nucleobase, a sugar with five carbons, and a phosphate group. Either ribose or deoxyribose may be the sugar. So a nucleoside with a phosphate group is a nucleotide. A nucleotide can be referred to as nucleoside monophosphate (if it only has one phosphate group), nucleoside diphosphate (if it has two phosphate groups), or nucleoside triphosphate (if it has three phosphate groups) (when with three phosphate groups).
A nucleoside can be either a ribonucleoside or a deoxyribonucleoside depending on the pentose sugar it contains. A nucleoside that contains ribose sugar is known as a ribonucleoside. The ribonucleoside can be adenosine, guanosine, cytidine, uridine, or 5-methyluridine depending on the nucleobase component.
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that absorbs sunlight needed to power the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.
The photosystem, which is in charge of photosynthesis, receives energy from the sun through the chlorophyll in plants. In addition to producing oxygen, water also serves as a source of hydrogen ions and electrons.
What is a good example of photosynthesis?Plants are the most well-known example because, with the exception of a very small number of parasitic or mycoheterotrophic species, they all have chlorophyll and can manufacture their own sustenance. The second most abundant class of eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms is algae.
Why is it referred to as "photosynthesis"?The phrase "photosynthesis" comes from the Greek words "light" and "synthesis," which mean "putting together." Some of the chemical energy is kept in carbon compounds, such as sugar and starch molecules, which are created from carbon dioxide and water.
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in addition to the uterus and the ovaries, what do the hormones that regulate the menstrual cycle affect?
Appetite and mood regulates menstrual cycle in addition to the uterus and the ovaries.
How appetite and mood affect menstruation? In the days preceding a period, fluctuating hormone levels may result in an increase in appetite or a longing for certain foods. Many individuals can stop or lessen these urges by implementing certain tactics.Low levels of serotonin are associated with PMS symptoms like moodiness and irritability, as well as difficulty sleeping and odd food cravings. One of the most prevalent and harmful PMS symptoms is mood swings.Although not always, the cyclical pattern of food cravings is commonly but not always linked to depression. During the menstrual cycle, fluctuations in hunger, desires, and energy consumption may take place concurrently with cyclical rhythms in serotonin, which can be accompanied by emotional symptoms.For more information on menstruation kindly visit to
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Which of the following is not used during digestion options: mouth. Lungs . stomach . small intestine
Answer:
The correct option is D Spleen
Explanation:
The spleen plays multiple supporting roles in the body. It acts as a filter for blood as part of the immune system. The spleen is not part of the digestive system, however, is connected to the blood vessels of both the stomach and the pancreas.
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where do the preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic division originate in the cns?
Answer:the lateral horns of the 12 thoracic and the first 2 or 3 lumbar segments of the spinal cord.
Explanation:
Place each label in the proper position to designate the organ system it describes.
1. Nervous
2. Endocrine
1. slower communication
2. basic life support (breathing regulation)
3. electrical
4. gamete (sex cell) production
5. blood transport
6. utilizes hormones
7. chemical only
8. growth
9. faster communication
10. cell-to-cell communication
The each label in the proper position to designate the organ system is given below.
Nervous
Faster communication
Electrical
Basic life support (breathing, circulation are largely regulated by nervous system)
Cell to cell communication (neuron connect to other neurons/cell by synapse)
The CNS is made of the mind and spinal wire. The peripheral apprehensive gadget is made of nerves that department off from the spinal wire and amplify to all components of the body.
Endocrine
Slower
Chemical only
Blood transport
Utilize hormone
Growth
Gametes
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Identify the following statements about resilient people as either true or false.
a. Anorexia has a significant mortality rate.
b. Anorexia may follow failure to lose weight in a more controlled fashion.
c. Anorexia is far more prevalent in Europe and North America than elsewhere.
d. Anorexia primarily affects upper-class Caucasian girls.
e. Between 5 and 10 percent of adolescent girls suffer from anorexia at some point.
a) Anorexia has a significant mortality rate is true.
b) Anorexia may follow failure to lose weight in a more controlled fashion is true.
Anorexia nervosa, more commonly known as plain "anorexia," is a severe eating disorder. Anorexic people don't eat enough and have a strong dread of gaining weight. Although the word "anorexia nervosa" refers to "no appetite, brought on by uneasiness," the majority of anorexics experience hunger, but they go to great lengths to suppress it, frequently to the point of starving.Although it isn't always the case, anorexia typically starts around adolescence, frequently as puberty begins and body types alter. Adolescent girls and young women are more likely to get it, but young men can also get it.To know more about anorexia check the below link:
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help me Discussion Topic
In May 2016, scientists discovered a eukaryote organism from a group known as Monocercomonoides that lacks functional mitochondria. Research this organism, and answer these questions:
Does this organism still meet the definition of a eukaryote? Why or why not?
Why can this organism survive without mitochondria?
Without mitochondria, does this organism still carry out all the basic functions of life?
Should the organism be considered a life-form?
Answer:
Yes. A eukaryotic organisms have mitochondria or some degenerate form of mitochondria. Monocercomonoides is an unusual organisms that does not have the slightest indication that it has a mitochondria nor have at least an abbreviated form of mitochondrial proteins. However, scientist conclude that mitochondria must have once been present in this organism and later lost them.
Explanation:
Usually a eukaryote has some genes in their nuclear DNA needed to assemble mitochondria but that genes were not present in Monocercomonoides. It also does not have a gene for making the energy extracting enzymes. Thus, this extraordinary organism refuses to adhere to the basic requirement of a eukaryotes.
However, scientist classify Monocercomonoides to be a eukaryotes though it does not show evidence of having a mitochondria simply because it is now commonly accepted that mitochondrion-related organelles (MROs) are essential composition in all newly discovered eukaryotes and that mitochondrial endosymbiosis takes place before radiation of all extant eukaryotes. It means that evolutionist assume that the mitochondria evolved in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes and conclude that mitochondria must have once been present in this organism and later lost them.
Monocercomonoides can still carry out all of its basic functions of life by obtaining energy from glucose using anaerobic metabolic pathways that operates in the cytoplasm of its cell. They utilize glycolysis, the same non-oxygen-requiring, energy-generating biochemical pathway found in the cytoplasm of all cells to metabolize glucose. It gets more energy by using a series of enzymes that breaks down arginine, an amino acid.
The organism could be considered a life form because evolutionist believed that it started out its existence with mitochondria, received a gene for iron-sulfur cluster synthesis from bacteria and lost its mitochondria. With their strange ways to energize their life and build structures for survival, Monocercomonoides live inside a mammalian intestine, a low oxygen environment.
This protist is a remarkable organism that surprises scientist and pushes the limits of what is actually known in biology.
imitri is measuring the amount of oxygen released by a venus flytrap plant. he determines that his plant has released 600 molecules of oxygen (o2). if this is correct, how many molecules of glucose did the venus flytrap create?
Flytraps sincerely get a bargain in their sustenance like different plant life do, thru the method of photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, plant life use the electricity of the solar to force a response that converts carbon dioxide and water to sugar and oxygen.
From 600 molecules of oxygen, the wide variety of molecules of glucose generated could be one hundred molecules.From the equation of photosynthesis:6CO_2 + 6H_2O --- > C_6H_1_20_6 +60_2The mole ratio of glucose to oxygen molecules is 1:6. This method that for each 6 molecules of oxygen produced, 1 molecule of glucose is produced.Thus, for six hundred molecules of oxygen, the molecules of glucose produced could be:molecules600 *1 / 6 = 100.Read more about photosynthesis:
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the motor functions of the alimentary canal are movements that combine food with digestive fluids and movements that move materials along the digestive tract. t or f
True. The motor functions of the alimentary canal refer to the movements that combine food with digestive fluids and move materials along the digestive tract.
The alimentary canal, also known as the digestive tract or gastrointestinal (GI) tract, is a long tube that extends from the mouth to the anus. It is responsible for the digestion and absorption of food, as well as the elimination of waste. The motor functions of the alimentary canal are essential for these processes to occur, as they help to mix and break down food and move it through the digestive tract to allow for proper digestion and absorption. These movements are controlled by a combination of smooth muscle contractions and the coordination of various muscles and organs within the digestive system.
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What is interesting about the digestive system?
It's fascinating to note that even while you're standing on your head, your body can still pass food through the digestive system. Since it uses muscles, it has nothing to do with gravity.
The nutrients in the food and drinks you ingest are broken down and absorbed by your digestive system for use in vital processes including cell development, repair, and energy production.
Your digestive system is specially designed to carry out its function of converting food into the nutrients and energy you require to exist. After that, it conveniently compresses your solid waste, or stool, for disposal the next time you have a bowel movement.
Here, digestion and nutrient absorption account for almost 90% of the process. Your digestive system as a whole is just about 30 feet long. Enzymes are produced by your liver and pancreas to aid in the digestion of meals.
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glycolysis, which provides energy by breaking down carbohydrates like glucose, relates to activities lasting __________.
Glycolysis, which provides energy by breaking down carbohydrates like glucose, relates to activities lasting ATP, NADH, and water.
The process by which glucose is broken down to provide energy is known as glycolysis. It generates two pyruvate molecules, ATP, NADH, and water. There is no need for oxygen throughout the process, which occurs in the cytoplasm of a cell. Both aerobic and anaerobic creatures experience it.The first stage of cellular respiration, which takes place in all organisms, is called glycolysis. The Krebs cycle comes after glycolysis during aerobic respiration. Small amounts of ATP are produced by the cells in the absence of oxygen as fermentation follows glycolysis.It is the procedure through which a glucose molecule is split into two pyruvate molecules. Animal and plant cells cytoplasm are where the process occurs.To know more about glycolysis check the below link:
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What fraction of the first glider's initial kinetic energy is transformed into thermal energy in this collision?.
1/2 fraction of the first glider's initial kinetic energy is transformed into thermal energy in this collision.
The initial KE (kinetic energy) of the system is
KE₁ = (1/2)mu²
After an inelastic collision, the two masses stick together.
Conservation of momentum requires that
m × u = 2m × v
Therefore,
v = u/2
The final KE is
KE₂ = (1/2)(2m)v²
= m(u/2)²
= (1/4)mu²
= (1/2) KE₁
The loss in KE is
KE₁ - KE₂ = (1/2) KE₁.
Conservation of energy requires that the loss in KE be accounted for as thermal energy.
Hence 1/2 is the answer.
Diagram is attached to elaborate the collision.
Your question is incomplete most probably your full question was;
An air-track glider undergoes a perfectly inelastic collision with an identical glider that is initially at rest.
What fraction of the first glider's initial kinetic energy is transformed into thermal energy in this collision?
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Explain the interrelationship of photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Answer:
The reactants and the products of photosynthesis and cellular respiration are the same but switched around.
Explanation:
For photosynthesis light energy, carbon dioxide, water are needed to create glucose and the waste product is oxygen. But for cellular respiration the things needed to create energy to move around are oxygen and glucose. Mitochondria (aka the powerhouse of the cell) breaks down the glucose to make ATP energy (Adenosine Triphosphate). Plants store some leftover oxygen for cellular respiration. So basically, photosynthesis and cellular respiration kinda depend on each other.
if we use a cscl gradient to test the density of various nucleic acids, both rna and dna-rna hybrids are more density than just dna. explain why this might be the case.
RNA and DNA-RNA hybrids are more dense than simply DNA if the density of different nucleic acids is tested using a CsCl gradient.
The primary technique employed in molecular biology is the extraction of DNA, RNA, and protein. Scientists can separate materials according to size, shape, and density by using density gradient centrifugation. Isopycnic centrifugation, a sort of density gradient centrifugation that Meselson and Stahl developed, employed a cesium chloride solution to separate DNA molecules solely on the basis of density. Because DNA has hydrogen bonds between its strands, which makes it less dense than RNA, RNA has a far larger density than DNA. RNA can be obtained at the test tube's bottom using a CsCl density gradient and high centrifugation, whereas DNA can be recovered in the middle layer.
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