During the move from foraging to farming, human craniofacial size decreased due to:
Eating foods that were reduced in toughnesschewing stress changedless demand placed on chewing muscles and craniofacial bonesHuman cranial capacity has evolved dramatically. The spatial packing hypothesis proposes that encephalization has altered the modern human skull, resulting in a domed cranial vault, a greatly flexible cranial base, and a retracted facial skeleton.
Most research has employed ancient or comparative primate data to establish connections between brain size and cranial form, but the molecular foundation for how brain size affects skull shape and cranial features is unclear and has rarely been rigorously studied. Body size has varied less than brain size over human evolution.
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the process of evolutionary changes that result in formation of new species and groups of species is called
Answer:
Explanation:
people r great
The process of evolutionary changes that result in formation of new species and groups of species is called speciation .
What are evolutionary change?Evolutionary change are defined as the gradual heritable alteration of populations and species brought on by processes including sexual selection, random genetic drift, and natural selection. A population, a collection of interacting individuals of a single species, exhibits a change in allele frequency from one generation to the next due to five main processes.
Through speciation, a new plant or animal species is created. Speciation occurs when a group within a species separates from other members of its species and develops its own unique traits. The process by which new species emerge is known as speciation. Groups in a species experience it when they grow reproductively separated and diverge.
Thus, the process of evolutionary changes that result in formation of new species and groups of species is called speciation .
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Martin Seligman conducted studies in which dogs were placed on a floor that administered electric shocks with no way of escaping. When the dogs were eventually given the opportunity to escape,
most dogs remained where they were.
most dogs jumped out right away.
most dogs helped other dogs escape before escaping themselves.
most dogs escaped quickly, but returned within several minutes.
In the study of Martin Seligman, when the dogs were eventually given the opportunity to escape during the studies, the majority of them remained where they were.
What was Martin Seligman's study?Martin Seligman first observed learned helplessness while conducting dog experiments. He noticed that if the dogs had been conditioned to believe that they couldn't escape, they didn't try to escape the shocks.In the 1960s, Martin Seligman and Steven F. Maier identified learned helplessness as a phenomenon. These psychologists conducted experiments on dogs and discovered that when the animals were exposed to repeated shocks that they could not control, they refrained from acting when they could prevent the shocks. Apr 24, 2022Learned helplessness occurs when a dog has been repeatedly exposed to a frightening stimulus and has learned that he no longer has control over the negative situation. Because he knows he can't change the outcome, the dog shuts down and becomes helpless.To learn more about Martin Seligman's study refer to :
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multigene families include two or more nearly identical genes or genes sharing nearly identical sequences. a classical example is the set of genes for globin molecules, including genes on human chromosomes 11 and 16. how might identical and obviously duplicated gene sequences have gotten from one chromosome to another?
Identical and obviously duplicated gene sequences have gotten from one chromosome to another by chromosomal translocation.
What is chromosomal translocation?А trаnslocаtion, аs relаted to genetics, occurs when а chromosome breаks аnd the (typicаlly two) frаgmented pieces re-аttаch to different chromosomes. The detection of chromosomаl trаnslocаtions cаn be importаnt for the diаgnosis of certаin genetic diseаses аnd disorders.
Multigene families are identicаl or similаr genes thаt hаve evolved by gene duplicаtion. Multigene fаmilies аre believed to hаve аrisen by duplicаtion аnd vаriаtion of а single аncestrаl gene. Exаmples of multigene fаmilies include those thаt encode the аctins, hemoglobins, immunoglobulins, tubulins, interferons, histones etc.
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cell division that reduces chromosome number from diploid to haploid, reduction division:___.
Cell division that reduces chromosome number from diploid to haploid, reduction division: Meiosis.
Meiosis is a type of cell division known as reduction cell division. The process produces four haploid daughter cells, which have half the number of chromosomes as the diploid parent cell. In human cells, there are 46 chromosomes. That is, these occur in groups of 23. In meiosis, these pairs split apart and become separated.
As a result, after the first meiotic division, each of the two daughter cells has half the number of chromosomes, i.e., 23. Every one of the 23 chromosomes now has two identical chromatids. So, during meiosis II, these chromatids separate, resulting in four cells. These four haploid cells are known as gametes, or sperm and eggs.
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Describe how the mammalian small intestine is adapted to its function in summary .
Answer:
The primary function of the small intestine in mammals is the absorption of nutrients and minerals from food.
Explanation:
The small intestine contains microvilli which increase the surface area of the membrane. It also has a rich blood supply, which maintains the concentration gradient. The small intestine has a membrane that is one cell thick, this decreases the diffusion pathway. Mitochondria are present, which respire aerobically, providing ATP for active transport. These adaptations enable the rapid diffusion of nutrients.
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0 m/s
0.24 m/s
4.2 m/s
8.5 m/s
c. 4.2 m/s...................................
Which is a biological sign of aging?
O A. Considering whether to keep working
OB. Retiring from work
O C. Experiencing a decline in height
O D. All of the above
The provided option claims that a decrease in height is a biological indicator of aging.
What does aging biologically look like?Because the thickness and density of a bone are diminished with age, the bone becomes weaker and is more susceptible to fracture. You may even grow a little bit shorter. Your equilibrium, stability, and coordination may be affected as a result of the normal deterioration of muscles in regards to strength, endurance, and flexibility.
Which are the top 5 biological explanations for aging?Wear and tear, error catastrophe, free radical theory, DNA damage hypothesis, loss of adaptive cellular mechanism, and mitochondrial theory are examples of stochastic theories.
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investigate your knowledge of carbohydrate, protein, and lipid metabolism by classifying the target-cell responses at left as an absorptive state event or a postabsorptive state event.
The postabsorptive state, also known as the fasting state, normally takes place while you're sleeping, after the food has already been digested and absorbed (if you skip meals for some days, you will enter in this state).
The metabolic breakdown of molecules into simpler ones during the catabolic stage releases energy (heat) and usable resources.
Now, the beginning of the postabsorptive stage occurs when your blood glucose levels start to fall and your body starts to rely on its glycogen reserves, which are broken down into glucose.
The statement is accurate since catabolic processes begin to take place once the body enters the postabsorptive phases.
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Enzymes are catalysts in reactions. What statements describe functions of enzymes? select all that apply.
Enzymes are biological catalysts. The following statements describe the functions of enzymes. Different sets of enzymes are found in various cell types. Substrates can encourage an enzyme's better match. The ideal temperature and pH parameters for certain enzymes vary.
The activation energy of a process is reduced by enzymes. While RNA molecules are less common than proteins, enzymes do exist. The majority of enzymes engage with a particular substrate. Each reaction is controlled individually.
Products cannot diffuse away.Enzymes bind their substrates more easily.Inadvertent side effects are eliminated.Enzymes alter in form in response to substrate binding. The binding of the substrate regulates the rate of an enzymatic process. Enzymes can combine different substrates. Enzymes put a substrate's chemical bonds under stress.
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Enzymes are catalysts in reactions, the statements that describe the functions of enzymes are;
a. Enzymes are specific in their actions.
c. Enzymes lower the energy of activation needed for a reaction
e. Enzyme activity can be affected by temperature.
Chemical reactions in a system are catalyzed by enzymes. Enzymes have specific properties that give them a catalytic nature, just like any other catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions. Enzymes reduce the activation energy required for a reaction. Temperature can affect the action of enzymes: Because enzymes are proteinous, or form of proteins, the temperature can quickly denature them. As a result, enzymes can lose their structure and ultimately their function when subjected to high temperatures.
As a result, choices a, c, and e are correct.
The complete question is attached.
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parent 1 is heterozygous for both the ""a"" and the ""b"" alleles. parent 2 is homozygous recessive for the ""a"" allele and homozygous dominant for the ""b"" allele. what are the possible gametes each parent can produce in regards to these two traits?
If parent 1 is heterozygous for both the "a" and the "b" alleles, this means that they have one copy of the dominant "A" allele and one copy of the recessive "a" allele for the "a" trait, and one copy of the dominant "B" allele and one copy of the recessive "b" allele for the "b" trait.
This means that parent 1 can produce two different types of gametes for each trait: those containing the "A" and "B" alleles, and those containing the "a" and "b" alleles.
Therefore, the possible gametes that parent 1 can produce in regards to these two traits are "A"/"B", "A"/"b", "a"/"B", and "a"/"b".
If parent 2 is homozygous recessive for the "a" allele and homozygous dominant for the "b" allele, this means that they have two copies of the recessive "a" allele for the "a" trait, and two copies of the dominant "B" allele for the "b" trait. This means that parent 2 can only produce gametes containing the "a" and "B" alleles.
Therefore, the possible gametes that parent 2 can produce in regards to these two traits are "a"/"B".
When the gametes from both parents combine during fertilization, there will be four possible combinations of alleles for each trait: "A"/"B", "A"/"b", "a"/"B", and "a"/"b".
These combinations will give rise to different genotypes and phenotypes in the offspring, depending on the dominant and recessive nature of the alleles.
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which species concept would be most useful to a team of biology students conducting a biodiversity survey on their campus? view available hint(s)for part a which species concept would be most useful to a team of biology students conducting a biodiversity survey on their campus? the phylogenetic species concept all species concepts would be equally useful. the morphospecies concept the biological species concept
The morphospecies concept would be most useful to a team of biology students conducting a biodiversity survey on their campus
Morphological Species Concept is the most common way to tell different species apart is by looking at them.
Asexual and sexual organisms are both included in the Morphological Species Concept, which uses body shape and other structural characteristics to define a species. It is not the same as the modern concept of a species, which refers to a group of organisms that are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.
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a primary function of folate is its role as part of coenzymes needed for . multiple choice question. maintenance of normal vision dna production energy metabolism bone health
One of folate's main roles in the body's necessary coenzymes is its participation in the creation of DNA.
The body's only apparent use for folate coenzymes is to facilitate the transfer of one-carbon molecules. Folate coenzymes participate in a number of processes essential to the metabolism of nucleic acids and amino acids as donors and acceptors of one-carbon units folate . helps cells function and tissues flourish. aides in the body's use, synthesis, and coenzymes breakdown of proteins when combined with vitamin B12 and vitamin C. folate creates red blood cells (helps prevent anemia) aids in the production of DNA, the genetic information-carrying molecule that makes up the human body.
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What is it called when the host cell breaks open and the viruses are released after the lytic cycle?.
The lytic cycle is named after the lysis process, which occurs after a virus infects a cell, replicates new virus particles, and bursts through the cell membrane.
The lytic cycle is one of two viral reproduction cycles (referring to bacterial viruses or bacteriophages); the other is the lysogenic cycle. The lytic cycle causes the infected cell and its membrane to be destroyed. Virulent phages are bacteriophages that only use the lytic cycle (in contrast to temperate phages).
The viral DNA exists as a separate free floating molecule within the bacterial cell and replicates independently from the host bacterial DNA during the lytic cycle, whereas the viral DNA is located within the host DNA during the lysogenic cycle. This is the primary distinction between lytic and lysogenic (bacterio)phage cycles. In both cases, however, the virus/phage replicates using the host DNA machinery.
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the flow of highly energetic electrons through the electron transport chain changes the of the pump proteins, which causes them to transport protons across the membrane.
The flow of highly energetic electrons through the electron transport chain changes the of the pump proteins, shape causes them to transport protons across the membrane.
NADH and FADH2 release high-energy electrons that travel through electron transport networks similar to those utilized during photosynthesis. On the mitochondrion's inner membrane are the electron transport chains. Some of the high-energy electrons' energy is caught as they move along the chains. Hydrogen ions (from NADH and FADH2) are pumped over the inner membrane and into the intermembrane gap using this energy.
The concentration of hydrogen ions in the intermembrane space is higher than in the matrix as a result of the pumping of hydrogen ions through the inner membrane. The ions move back over the membrane into the matrix, where their concentration is lower, as a result of this chemiosmotic gradient. The channel protein ATP synthase aids in the passage of hydrogen ions across the membrane. It also functions as an enzyme, converting inorganic phosphate and ADP into ATP. The "spent" electrons unite with oxygen to make water after going through the electron-transport chain. This is why oxygen is required because this process cannot take place without it.
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An arrhenius base increases the concentration of hydrogen ions when dissolved in solution. True false.
False. Bases increase the hydroxide ion concentration
The Arrhenius acid-base theory is a theory that suggests the classification of acid-base compounds based on the type of ion formed when the compound is added to air. A substance when added to water will show acidic or basic properties. This theory can only describe acids and bases in aqueous solutions and cannot classify acids and bases in gaseous or solid state.
According to Arrhenius a base is a compound that increases the concentration of hydroxide ions in an aqueous solution. When a substance is alkaline dissolved in water which has neutral properties, it will produce hydroxide ion OH-. While that can increase the concentration of hydrogen ions when dissolved in solution is an acid.
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which of the following statements about growth factors is true? group of answer choices they are found on the surface of cancer cells and stimulate abnormal cell division. they convey messages between nerve cells. they are modified fatty acids that stimulate bone and cartilage growth. they are local regulators that stimulate division and development of target cells.
Formation factors are modified fatty acids that promote the growth of bone and cartilage.
How do growth factors work?
The body uses growth factors, a class of proteins also known as cytokines, as signaling molecules and to promote cell development, cell division, and cell repair. They aid the body in controlling the maintenance of its cells.
What exactly are growth factors? What do they do?According to its original definition, a growth factor is a secreted physiologically active substance that has the ability to influence cell growth. This concept has been broadened to include secreted chemicals that influence cellular differentiation or that either encourage or hinder mitosis.
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cell bodies of the sympathetic preganglionic fibers are found in the horn of gray matter in the spinal cord. t or f
According to the research, the correct answer is true. The statement "cell bodies of the sympathetic preganglionic fibers are found in the horn of gray matter in the spinal cord" is true.
What is gray matter in the spinal cord?It is the group of neuronal bodies, which is distributed differently depending on its location in the nervous system, that is, in the brain and spinal cord.
In this sense, the central nervous system is made up of the brain, the spinal cord, the gray matter and the white matter that function in the analysis and transmission of information.
Therefore, we can conclude that according to the research, the gray matter is a group of cell bodies that form an important part in the spinal cord of the nervous system, and therefore in brain function.
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a biodiversity hotspot is: question 12 options: an area where the rate of species extinction is high an area that has been effected catastrophic environmental change a region where animals that should be brought together in an enclosure an area near volcanic vents on the ocean floor where the diversity of chemosynthetic communities is high a region where species diversity is high, but threatened by environmental change.
In an area known as a hotspot, species diversity is strong but endangered by habitat loss.
How does species diversity work?The number of distinct species in an environment and the varying abundance of each species are considered to be the two determinants of species diversity. When every species is present in an area in an equal amount, diversity is at its highest.
What makes species diversity crucial?All life on Earth, especially humans, depends on the mechanisms that biodiversity supports. We cannot have ecological integrity that depend on a variety of creatures, plants, and bacteria to give us the oxygen we and the food we eat. And individuals value nature itself.
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The origin of a new plant species by hybridizing two existing species, coupled with accidents during cell division, is an example of _____.
The origin for any new plant species using hybridizing two present species, coupled by accidents during cell division process, is an example for Symmpatric speciation and allopolyploidy.
The process by which new species emerge is known as speciation. It happens when populations within a species separate and experience reproductive isolation. When two closely related plant species hybridize, the number of chromosomes alters, a process known as allopolyploidy.
Although this event is not always feasible, when it is, it can quickly give rise to a new species of plant that is incompatible with both of the parent species in terms of reproduction. The geographical separation of two (or more) populations by a physical barrier, such as a river, causes reproductive isolation in allopatric speciation.
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what is it called when the sequence of questions on a poll influences responses?
Ordering effects was questions (response alternatives) on a poll which has a purpose to influence responses.
Which factors can influence the results of a poll?The more random and diverse the poll, the more accurate the poll (the less of a sampling error). However, polls can be influenced by the following factors, their size and diversity, the biases on themselves, and the demographic measured.The term order effect refers to a well-documented phenomenon in which different orderings of questions (or response alternatives) can influence respondents' responses in a more or less systematic manner.Order effects can be caused by almost anything, making them dangerously difficult to control. Some of the possible causes of order effects include fatigue after one or two tests or practice. When people in fatigue they easy to influence which affect to their responses in pool or decision.
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The electrophoresis buffer is poured over the agarose gel because it charges the DNA samples so they can travel more readily across the chamber 4 True or Falco
False. The electrophoresis buffer is NOT poured over the agarose gel because it DOES NOT charges the DNA samples so they can travel more readily across the chamber.
Gels used for DNA separation are frequently made of agarose, a polysaccharide that comes in the form of dry, powdered flakes. When agarose is subjected to heat in a buffer (salty water) and allowed to cool, it forms a solid, mildly squishy gel.
The DNA is filled into pre-cast wells in the gel and a current is generated to separate it using agarose gel electrophoresis. Because the phosphate backbone of the DNA (and RNA) molecule is negatively charged, DNA fragments will migrate to the positively charged anode when placed in an electric field.
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which factors are measured by polysomnography? select all that apply. eye movements brain activity heart rate oxygen level blood pressure
Polysomnography is used to measure eye movements, brain activity, heart rate, and oxygen saturation.
A type of sleep study called polysomnography is a multi-parameter sleep study and a diagnostic tool in sleep medicine. The test outcome is known as a polysomnogram, or PSG for short. A thorough examination performed to identify sleep abnormalities is termed polysomnography, commonly known as a sleep study. Your blood oxygen levels, pulse rate, breathing rate, and brain waves are all monitored during a polysomnography test.
Eye movements are measured during polysomnography, which is crucial for identifying REM sleep. Brain activity is measured by polysomnography. Together, brain chemicals and cells control sleep and the alterations in the brain that result from sleep deprivation. In polysomnography, heart rate is measured. Since respiratory issues that affect sleep are associated with elevated heart rates, determining heart rate is crucial for verifying sleep disorders. Oxygen level is measured via polysomnography. Breathing and oxygen have an impact on sleep and can contribute to OSA and other sleep disorders.
As a result, answers in options A, B, C, and D are accurate.
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Rats colonize an archipelago in the Pacific Ocean where no rats previously existed. The rats can have white fur, grey fur, or black fur. Predict what type of selection is likely to occur when each of the following phenotypes have the greatest fitness. Place each phenotype in the category describing the type of selection that will occur.
Stabilizing selection: grey fur
Diversifying selection: dark fur on island and light on another island. Dark fur in forests and light in fields
Directional selection: dark and light fur
The type of selection which is likely to occur on the following phenotypes:
Stabilizing selection: grey fur
Diversifying selection: dark fur on island and light on another island. Dark fur in forests and light in fields
Directional selection: dark and light fur
When individual people with such character traits generate more surviving offspring than individual people with other characteristics, this is referred to as phenotypic selection. Although selection is widely regarded as the primary driver of evolutionary change, scientists have only lately started to quantify its effects in the wild.
Because phenotype influences differential reproduction and survivorship, selection acts on phenotypes. If the phenotype influencing reproduction or survival rates is genetically determined, selection can indirectly winnow out genotypes by winnowing out phenotypes.
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how many individual protein subunits make up the quaternary structure of one biologically active myosin protein? what are these proteins? what are their approximate molecular masses?
The fourth (and highest) classification level of protein structure is known as protein quaternary structure.
The term "protein quaternary structure" describes how proteins are made up of two or more smaller protein chains (also referred to as subunits). The quantity and configuration of numerous folded protein subunits in a multi-subunit complex are described by the protein quaternary structure.
Simple dimers, huge homooligomers, and complexes with a set or variable number of subunits are all included in this category of organisations. Since some proteins serve as standalone units, not all proteins will have a quaternary structure, in contrast to the previous three levels of protein structure. Protein biomolecular complexes with nucleic acids and other cofactors are also referred to as having protein quaternary structure.
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6. if a person had a mutation in the gene that codes for interphotoreceptor retinoid binding protein, what would be the most likely downstream effects?
The retinoid cycle could not transfer retina to and from the outer segment.
The primary downstream consequences of dams are sediment transport and the balance between channel sedimentation and erosion. The distribution of flow velocities is altered, and river channels are cut, as a result of silt entrapment by dams and reservoirs.
Flooding in the downstream is frequently brought on by prolonged, powerful storms. Runoff made of saturated solids is produced by the additional water.
Upstream flooding is more likely if the exceedance flow cannot discharge freely due to the downstream system. For instance, when releasing into coastal locations, tide levels may impact how well surface flood channels work. The primary downstream consequences of dams are sediment transport and the balance between channel sedimentation and erosion. The distribution of flow velocities is altered, and river channels are cut, as a result of silt entrapment by dams and reservoirs.
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which of the following is correct? a. the primary auditory cortex is located in the mesial temporal lobe (mtl) and its representation of sound frequencies is roughly continuous (like the piano keyboard). b. the primary auditory cortex is located in the mesial temporal lobe (mtl) and its representation of sound frequencies is non-continuous and counterintuitive (like the representation of body parts in the somatosensory homunculus). c. the primary auditory cortex is located in the temporal cortex and its representation of sound frequencies is roughly continuous (like the piano keyboard). d. the primary auditory cortex is located in the temporal cortex and its representation of sound frequencies is non-continuous and counterintuitive (like the representation of body parts in the somatosensory homunculus
In humans and many other species, the Primary Auditory Cortex is the area of the temporal lobe that deals with auditory information. It is a component of the auditory system and performs both fundamental and advanced hearing processes, including those that may be related to language switching.
The temporal lobe is crucial in the processing of auditory information, as its location close to the temples suggests. This function entails hearing noises, giving them meaning, and recalling those meanings. The superior temporal gyrus, a temporal lobe region that takes sound input directly from the ear, processes a large portion of the temporal lobe's auditory activity. Some of its additional features include
The development of visual memories, long-term memories included. The temporal lobe plays a crucial role in the development of conscious memories along with the hippocampus and amygdala, two components of the limbic system.
Figuring out what visual stimuli mean, including object recognition. It is not sufficient to merely view an object. Understanding what you are seeing is also necessary for eyesight to be effective. The ventral portion of the temporal lobe helps you give the daily sights you see significance. You wouldn't be able to distinguish faces or interpret body language without the ventral lobe.
The act of speaking. Speech production is aided by the temporal lobe. Speaking difficulties, even when awake, can result from dysfunction in this brain region.
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The evolutionary mechanism that allows for species to adapt to the environmental conditions found in their habitat is?
Natural selection is the mechanism. of the evolution.
Natural selection is an evolutionary mechanism. Organisms that are better adapted to their environment are more likely to inherit genes that have contributed to their survival and success. This process causes species to change and diverge over time.
Natural selection is the process of randomly selecting genes to pass on to the next generation. Individuals within a population are inherently variable. In other words, all individuals are different in some way. This change means that some individuals have traits that adapt better to their environment than others. These are the working of natural selection.
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what membranes of the maculae sacculi and utriculi are important in sensing gravity and motion?
Otolithic membranes of the maculae sacculi and utriculi are important in sensing gravity and motion
The vestibular system of the inner ear has a fibrous tissue called the otolithic membrane. It is essential for how the brain interprets equilibrium. In addition to measuring the linear acceleration of the body, the membrane also determines whether the head or the body is tilted. The linear acceleration could occur vertically, like when an elevator moves up or down, or horizontally, like when an automobile is traveling.The vestibular system of the inner ear has a fibrous tissue called the otolithic membrane. It is essential for how the brain interprets equilibrium. In addition to measuring the body's linear acceleration, the membrane also detects tilts of the head or body. The linear acceleration could occur vertically, like when an elevator moves up or down, or horizontally, like when an automobile is traveling.Gravity causes the otolithic membrane to move away from the sensory epithelium when the head tilts (macula). The hair bundles, which are embedded in the bottom, gelatinous surface of the membrane, are moved as a result of the shearing motion between the otolithic membrane and the macula. The displacement of the hair bundles causes the hair cells to produce a receptor potential. The otolithic membrane assists the body in detecting linear accelerations in addition to tilting.
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What structure of a neuron is a short, highly branched process that helps receive input from other neurons?
Dendrites structure of a neuron is a short, highly branched process that helps receive input from other neurons.
What are the Neurons ?
The basic building blocks of the brain and nervous system are neurons, also known as neurones or nerve cells. They are the cells in charge of receiving sensory information from the outside world, sending motor commands to our muscles, and transforming and relaying electrical signals at each stage along the way.
What is the neuron’s structure?
A normal neuron is made up of an axon, dendrites, and the cell body (soma). The axon and dendrites are filaments extending from the soma, which is a compact structure. Typically, dendrites branch out widely and reach a few hundred micrometres from the soma.
What are the three different types of neurons’ functions?
Despite the enormous variety and billions of neurons, they can be divided into three fundamental kinds according to their function: relay neurons (short dendrites and either long or short axons) and motor neurons (short dendrites and long axons).
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the production of second messengers has been found to have two important advantages in cellular signaling. what are they?
Second messengers accelerate the process of intracellular signaling and enhance the signal that was sent in the first place.
Small chemicals and ions known as second messengers transmit signals from cell-surface receptors to effector proteins. They include a broad range of chemical species and possess a variety of characteristics that enable them to communicate inside membranes (for example, hydrophobic molecules like lipids and lipid derivatives), within the cytoplasm (for example, polar molecules like nucleotides and ions), or between the two (e.g., gases and free radicals).
Second messengers' quick propagation and amplification of signals received at the cell surface to intracellular target molecules in the cytosol or nucleus is a crucial benefit. It takes microseconds to seconds for second messenger levels to rise and start having an impact since they are regulated by quick kinetics.
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